Chitosan and PVP: Versatile Biopolymers for Drug Delivery and Advanced Materials
Pablo Sebastian Espinel 1, Diego S. Otuna-Hernández 2, Rosemary Davies 2, Lilian Spencer 2, and Hortensia Rodríguez 1,*
1 Yachay Tech Medicinal Chemistry Research Group (MedChem-YT), School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Yachay Tech, Yachay City of Knowledge, Urcuqui 100119, Ecuador;
pespinel@yachaytech.edu.ec
2 School of Biological Science and Engineering,
Yachay Tech, Yachay City of Knowledge, Urcuqui 100119, Ecuador;
diego.otuna@yachaytech.edu.ec, rosemary.davies@yachaytech.edu.ec,
lspencer@yachaytech.edu.ec
* Correspondence: hmrodriguez@yachaytech.edu.ec ; Tel.: +593994336513
ABSTRACT
Chitosan (CS) is one of the most studied natural
polymers in biomaterials because its extraction from the exoskeletons of
crustaceans such as shrimp and crabs is not too complex or expensive.
Additionally, this polysaccharide has hydroxyl and primary amino functional
groups in its structure, making it particularly useful for interacting with
other compounds, mainly in acidic media. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), like
chitosan, has antibacterial properties and biocompatibility with living tissue,
which has made these two biopolymers the object of study for the development of
new materials with desired properties and in the design of drug delivery
systems (DDS). Both materials can form films and gels; however, one advantage
of PVP compared to CS is its solubility in water. Another essential feature of
these biopolymers is their ability to form complexes with synthetic drugs and
natural products, which makes them especially useful in the design of DDS. This
review presents the main characteristics of these biopolymers and addresses the
possibility of combining them to develop materials and DDS that provide
individual characteristics to improve their physical, chemical, and biological
properties.
Keywords: chitosan (CS), polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP), drug delivery systems (DDS), biomaterials.
INTRODUCTION
Modern materials that can
offer better absorption and antimicrobial properties for faster wound healing
have helped to replace conventional wound dressing materials like cotton wool,
lint, and gauze 1 .
Drug delivery systems (DDS), which include liposomes, microspheres,
nanoparticles, gels, prodrugs, and many others, are used to increase the
therapeutic effects of a pharmaceutical drug or a natural compound in a
specific diseased site while minimizing toxicological effects 2 . Compared to synthetic ones, biopolymers used
in DDS ensure biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity. Silk
fibroins, collagen, gelatin, albumin, starch, cellulose, and chitosan are just
a few examples of biopolymers that can be easily made into suspensions that act
as carriers for both large and small drug molecules 3 .
Specific polymers with a
range of molecular weights,
such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), chitosan (CS), poly(ethylene
glycol)/poly(ethylene oxide), and other
oligomer/polymers with a similar molecular formula, can present various
applications in drug delivery through scientific integration depending on the
application of nanotechnologies 4 .
Developing secure, non-toxic, and accessible DDS based on natural molecules
such as peptides, polysaccharides, and proteins is considerably aided by the immense
diversity of structures and functional groups accessible for chemical
modification 5 . For packaging in biomedical and
pharmaceutical applications, novel approaches utilizing biopolymer-based
materials with various constituents seem especially appealing 6 .
Biodegradable polymeric
materials have come a long way in terms of development for biomedical
applications 7 . Therapeutic devices, such as transient
implants and three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering, are often made
of biodegradable polymeric materials 8 . The scientific community is currently interested in the mucosal
route for noninvasive drug delivery via the oral, nasal, pulmonary, or vaginal
routes 9 . Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide with
notable physicochemical and biological characteristics, including
biodegradability, biocompatibility, nonimmunogenicity,
non-toxicity, bioadhesion, antifungal,
antibacterial, and hemostatic action 10 . This is because chitosan, a biopolymer
considered authorized for wound patches and safe for human consumption
applications, has gained attention 11 .
Chitosan has been studied for various pharmacological properties, and its use
in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine is well-known 12 .
On the other hand,
promising DDS for treating serious illnesses like cancer, infections, and
neurodegenerative disorders can be found among polymeric nanoparticles loaded
with medications 13 .
Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) is an inert, non-toxic, pH-stable,
temperature-resistant, biocompatible, and biodegradable polymer that aids in
the packaging and delivering hydrophilic and lipophilic medications 14 . These benefits make PVP a flexible
excipient that can be used in developing various controlled delivery systems,
from the most basic to the most cutting-edge 15 .
At the moment, several PVP-based systems have been
created to deliver multiple active principles derived from both natural and
synthetic sources 16 . Also, PVP has been used in various
formulations and morphologies, including nanoparticles and microparticles,
hydrogels, films, tablets, and fibers. PVP is one of the most suitable and
promising polymers for creating novel pharmaceutical forms due to its
adaptability and unique properties 17 . PVP has also been used to develop
DDS, and studies have shown that it has effective antibacterial properties
against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and Bacillus
subtilis, as well as effective fungicidal properties against a variety of
yeasts and molds 18 .
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
General chemical and biological properties of chitosan
(CS)
Chitosan (Figure 1) is considered a
polysaccharide that is formed from chitin, and the partial deacetylation of
D-glucosamines and N-acetyl-D-glucosamines 19 produces this. At the same time,
it has a wide variety of biological properties 19 . Chitosan has beneficial properties such as
biocompatibility, low toxicity, and biodegradability and finds applications in
various industries 20 . It is used in the pharmaceutical sector as a
supplement that acts as a fat blocker and helps lower cholesterol levels by
removing fats and cholesterol from the body rather than allowing the body to
absorb them 21 . Besides, it is used in the cosmetics
industry, where it is included in various skin care products, such as face
creams, among others, and in the medical field, it is incorporated into
preparations for tissue regeneration and wound healing 22,23 .
Figure 1. Chitosan chemical
structure.
On the other hand, chitin must reach
approximately 50% of the deacetylation degree to form chitosan, at which point
it becomes soluble in acidic aqueous environments 24 . This process occurs through the protonation
of the -NH2 group at the C-2 position, transforming it from a polysaccharide
into a polyelectrolyte under acidic conditions. Nevertheless, due to its
solubility in aqueous solutions, it is used in various forms, such as gels and
fibers 25 . As depicted in Figure 2, chitosan exhibits
functional groups and primary amino and hydroxyl groups (primary and
secondary), giving it its particular characteristics. Furthermore, the acetamide
group and glycosidic bonds provide some modifications that result in polymers
with novel properties and are considered functional groups 26,27 .
Figure 2. Functional groups of chitosan (-OH, -NH2,
and glycosidic bond) and its chemical reactivities.
Chitosan displays a semicrystalline configuration
when in a solid state. Its physical structure has undergone comprehensive
scrutiny, resulting in various distinct forms as documented in the literature 28,29 . To produce individual chitosan crystals,
scientists employed chitin that had been fully deacetylated and possessed a low
molecular weight 30 . The electron diffraction pattern aligns
precisely with an orthorhombic unit cell (P212121),
featuring dimensions of a = 0.807 nm, b = 0.844 nm, and c = 1.034 nm 31,32 . This unit
cell encompasses two chitosan chains oriented antiparallelly with water
molecules. Additionally, prior studies have shown how experimental conditions
affect their crystalline nature 33,34 .
Various chitosan derivatives have been developed to enhance
characteristics, such as solubility or biodegradability, and introduce new
functionalities or properties 35 . For instance, solubility in aqueous media
has been enhanced through deacetylation, depolymerization, or quaternization,
among others 36 . Modifications to chitosan have resulted in
new activities; for example, 6-O-sulfated chitosan has been shown to promote
neuronal differentiation, while phosphorylated chitosan has demonstrated
corrosion inhibition properties 37,38 .
The primary
studies on chitosan revolve around its production with different molecular
weights and deacetylation degrees (DA) starting from chitin. Additionally,
there is a focus on their benefits, the creation of derivatives, and their
practical uses. Sponges, powders, and fibers can be produced by chitosan or
from solutions 39 .
Chitosan, known for its affordability, lack of toxicity, and the presence of
reactive amino groups, has demonstrated its utility across domains 40 . It serves as an antimicrobial agent in
agriculture, a potential stimulant for plant defense mechanisms, a clarifying
agent in wastewater treatment, an additive in the food industry, a moisturizing
component in cosmetics, and, more recently, a pharmaceutical agent in
biomedicine 41 . Over the past few years, significant focus
has been directed towards examining the antimicrobial efficacy of chitosan, and
its modified forms against various categories of microorganisms, including
bacteria and fungi 42 Chitin and chitosan possess a wide range of
biological activities, including antitumoral, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and
anti-inflammatory properties, making them potentially valuable as therapeutic
polymers 43 . It is noteworthy that, as of now, regulatory
agencies have only recognized chitosan and chitosan hydrochloride as excipients
rather than standalone drugs for disease treatment 44 .
The emergence of bacterial antibiotic
resistance is a pressing public health issue that brings to light the need for effective
alternatives against this problem 45 . Chitosan, its derivatives, and
chitooligosaccharides demonstrate antimicrobial effectiveness against various
microorganisms, including bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeast 46 . Notably, chitosan appears to possess
growth-inhibiting properties, as bacteria can resume growth once the polymer is
removed from the medium. This is significant, as resistant populations may
arise if these bacteria adapt to chitosan 47 .
Liberation of drugs from particulate systems based on
chitosan relies on factors such as the degree of cross-linking, the structure,
dimensions, and compactness of the system, as well as the physical and chemical
characteristics of the drug; additionally, the inclusion of adjuvants plays a
role 48 . In vitro release is also influenced
by factors like enzymes in the dissolution medium, pH, and polarity. Figure 3
shows the drug release process from chitosan particulate systems encompassing
three distinct mechanisms 49 .
Figure 3. The drug release process from chitosan particulate
systems encompasses three distinct mechanisms: a) liberation due to polymer
erosion, b) diffusion through the expanded matrix, and c) discharge from the
particle surface.
Generally, drug release does not
involve a single type of mechanism. For example, when surface release occurs,
the adsorbed drug dissolves instantly upon contact with the release medium.
Drugs trapped in the surface layer of particles also follow this mechanism. This
form of drug release is known as the burst effect 47 . In swelling-controlled release systems, the
drug is dispersed within a rigid polymer. The polymer undergoes swelling when
it encounters biological fluids, but there is no through the polymer phase. As
the penetrant enters the rigid polymer, the polymer’s glass transition
temperature decreases due to the relaxation of the polymer chains. This allows
the drug to diffuse out of the swollen, flexible polymer. This type of system
is characterized by two dynamic boundaries: the boundary separating the flexible,
swollen part from the rigid, glassy region (which advances with a certain
speed) and the interface between the polymer and the fluid. The rate at which
the drug is released is governed by the speed and position of the boundary 50 . Figure 4 shows the different drug delivery
systems using chitosan-based nanoparticles.
Figure 4. Chitosan-based
nanoparticles are used as effective drug delivery systems (DDS), such as oral
drugs, eye drops, and skin and transdermal applications.
General chemical and biological properties of Polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP)
The synthetic polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), often known as
polyvidone or povidone, is created by polymerizing N-vinylpyrrolidone monomer 51 .
PVP is a hydrophilic polymer commonly used in drug delivery systems 52 . It is highly soluble in polar organic
solvents. As the molecular weight of PVP increases, its solubility may slightly
decrease 53 .
As depicted in Figure 5, the functional groups present in polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) are highlighted. PVP exhibits solubility in water, alcohols, ammonia, and
halogenated hydrocarbons.
Conversely, PVP demonstrates insolubility in ethers,
hydrocarbons, and particular ketones 54 . PVP has different biological and
physicochemical properties (Figure 6). Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) has the
potential to improve hydrophilicity significantly on the surface of some
compatible materials; Zhao et al. 55 demonstrated that PVP-treated samples, which
maintained a specific contact angle, showed higher hydrophilicity compared to
samples that were not subjected to PVP treatment. The hydrophilic nature of PVP
improves pure water flow contact angle and has more excellent resistance to
scale formation 56 . PVP can prevent drug degradation and improve
the stability of some others 57 . Moreover, amorphous solid dispersions
enhance drug dissolution rates and bioavailability 58 .
Figure 5. Polivinylpyrrolidone (PVP) functional groups.
Figure 6. Biological and Physicochemical
properties of Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP).
PVP
can create thin films for transdermal drug delivery or oral disintegration.
Controlled drug release can be achieved by adjusting the polymer-drug ratio and
formulation conditions in PVP-based systems. Studies show that PVP possesses
modifiable properties and could be used as a reinforcing element for gene
delivery, tissue engineering applications, and orthopedic implants 59 . Drug release strategies can be designed
depending on chemical, physical, biological, and engineering aspects, controlling the spatiotemporal release. Moreover, quantitative
and controlled drug release can be achieved by adjusting the dissolving profile
of the polymer matrix and drug loading 60 . PVPs are distinguished by different
K-values based on the relative viscosity of PVP aqueous solution and can be
used to characterize the average molecular weight of PVP 61 . The study by Unni et al. 63 mentions that hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose (HPMC) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) are biocompatible
synthetic polymers that can form polymeric
matrices. The bioavailability of platinum nanoparticles coated with PVP has
been studied, and the results show that the bioavailability is affected by the
size of the nanoparticles and the composition of natural organic matter 62 .
PVP-based Drug Delivery Systems (DDS).
Several important drug delivery methods for the
pharmaceutical and biomedical industries have been created using PVP 63 . For example, polyvinylpyrrolidone nanofibers are
a type of drug delivery system that uses PVP as a modifying component and can
be used in various kinds of DDS, including micellar vehicles, nanofiber mats,
and coatings for drug delivery devices 64 . Also, the spray drying procedure represents
a widely adopted technique employed for converting liquid solutions or
suspensions into dry powder 65 the basic scheme of this technique is shown
in Figure 7.
Figure
7. The spray Drying procedure is an adopted technique for converting liquid
solutions or suspensions into dry powder.
Nanoparticles
In addition to its function
as a stabilizing agent for nanoparticles, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) is
utilized to produce polymeric nanoparticles 66 . Approaching cell migration for developing
new anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor medications is particularly promising 67 . For example, noble metal nanoparticles can
be generated by reducing the metal salt precursor with glucose, while
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) serves as a stabilizing and protective agent 68 . Nanocapsules and nanospheres, as depicted
in Figure 8, represent distinct nanostructures utilized in drug delivery.
Figure 8a showcases nanocapsules, while Figure 8b illustrates nanospheres.
These nanostructures serve as pivotal platforms for drug delivery applications.
Matrix topologies are encountered in nanospheres, while a core-shell structure
is a defining characteristic of nanocapsules 69 .
Figure
8. a) Nanocapsules and b) Nanospheres as pivotal platforms for drug delivery applications.
Microparticles
Several investigations expose the use of PVP in various
formulations and structures such as nanoparticles, microparticles, fibers, and
tablets 70 . A relevant technique is the supercritical
antisolvent process (SAS), used for the precipitation VP microparticles, using
combinations of acetone and ethanol or pure ethanol 71 . In addition, a method for the production of
capillary microparticles with a PLA/PVP core by direct electrospray has been
documented 72 , and scientific literature also describes
techniques for obtaining monodisperse microparticles from an aqueous solution
of PVP 73 . These are why PVP is frequently used in the
preparation of microparticles for different applications such as controlled
drug release and the manufacturing of monodisperse microparticles.
Microneedles
Microneedles are an emerging transdermal drug delivery
system that has gained attention recently. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) has been
studied for its role in microneedles for drug delivery applications. Qiang et
al. 74 created a Polyvinylpyrrolidone/Sodium
Carboxymethyl Cellulose formulation; this suggests that the researchers
acknowledge the potential for further enhancement in the formulation of these
microneedles to ensure effective dissolution in the skin. The optimization is
crucial to ensure that the microneedles can efficiently release drugs and
deliver the intended therapeutic benefits.
Microcontainers
Hou et al. 75 prepared and evaluated PLA/PVP core-shell
microparticles mat via single capillary electrospraying as a potential
drug-loading material; however, the drug-loading capacity of the core-shell
microparticles may not be as high.
Nanogels
The synthesis of PVP nanogels is carried out by different
methods, such as gamma irradiation, chemical cross-linking, and self-assembly
techniques 76 .
Thus, gamma irradiation is a commonly used method to induce cross-linking in
PVP solutions, forminganogels 77 . On the other hand, chemical cross-linking
uses compounds or initiators to cross-link the PVP polymer chains and form the
corresponding nanogels 78 . Finally, self-assembly techniques are based
on the spontaneous assembly of PVP molecules into nanogels through
interactions, such as electrostatic or hydrophobic ones 79 .
Hydrogels
Hydrogel coatings can improve the molecular scaffolds’
mechanical properties, making them suitable for drug delivery applications 80 . The results of the study of Pan et al. 81 indicate that adding PVP to HPMC hydrogels
improves the ability of the hydrogels to adhere to the skin and release drugs
sustainably since PVP increases the elasticity and resistance of the hydrogel.
Nanofibers
Polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) nanofibers have been proposed as a potential drug delivery system C.
Virginia et al. 82 it was discovered that increasing the
molecular weight of PVP resulted in the formation of fibers with larger
diameters. For their preparation, electrospinning
(ES) is the most sophisticated and reliable method for producing nanofibers,
which provides a thorough solution to the issues with conventional approaches. This
simple technique continuously removes nanofibers from a viscoelastic fluid by
pulling on the electrostatic attraction between surface charges 83 . However, the low electrospinning capacity,
the absence of essential qualities necessary for a specific application with a
single biopolymer, and the incompatibility between common solvents are the main
problems in fabricating protein nanofibers and polysaccharides using ES 84 . The general scheme of the electrospinning
technique is shown in the figure 9.
Figure
9. The electrospinning technique is the most sophisticated and reliable method
for producing nanofibers.
Chitosan/PVP formulations
Detailed guidelines for chemical compounds, reactions, and
laboratory procedures are known as chemical formulations or laboratory
protocols. There are several reasons why formulations are of relevant
importance in scientific research and industry, among which we can highlight
the evaluation of the reproducibility of results, the safety of the use of
reagents, the efficiency in the use of resources, and the development of new
materials 85 . Chemical formulations are the
bases that allow other scientists to repeat studies and obtain comparable
results to evaluate and confirm the research findings. They also contribute to
optimizing experimental techniques by providing precise quantities of reagents
and adequate reaction conditions, which saves time and economic resources by
eliminating the need to perform tests and adjustments every time an experiment
is performed. Finally, they allow researchers to design and create desired
compounds with previously contemplated characteristics. This is a fundamental
starting point for synthesizing new materials, medicines, and multifunctional
chemical products.
In
this sense, CS/PVP formulations can be proposed to create materials that can be
used in various applications of scientific interest. These materials can be
obtained through different processes. For example, in Christou et al. 86 study on uranium adsorption, the
electrospinning process was used to create CS/PVP-based blended fibrous
membrane adsorbents. On the other hand, Grant J. et al. 87, in their research on the synthesis of
chitosan/PVP fibers for the effective administration of the chemotherapeutic
drug 5-fluorouracil, prepared five solutions with different formulations of
chitosan, PVP, and diluted acetic acid. After the synthesis, tests, and
characterization of the nanofibers, it was found that a polymer blend’s ability
to load and release drugs is improved by adding more CS to it. This results
from how CS and 5-Fluoracil (5-F) interact 88 . They succeeded in producing fibers with a high
CS-to-PVP ratio (4:6) using the fiber production protocol they developed, which
has good potential for use in a drug delivery system. It is believed that a
5-Fu concentration of between 5 and 10 mg/ml would be a good bet to take
advantage of the substance’s cytotoxic properties for cancer research 89 . The fibers obtained with these five
solutions are shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. SEM images under 5K
magnification for samples obtained through Electrospun nanofibrous mats
consisting of chitosan (CS) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as potential DDS of
5-fluoracil (5-F) 89 .
Advantages
and Disadvantages
Producing chitosan/PVP blended fibers has an advantage over
producing homogeneous chitosan fibers because, in previous studies, the miscibility
and compatibility of chitosan/PVP composite mixtures have been confirmed 90 . It has been found that chitosan and PVP
were immiscible in various concentrations of aqueous acetic acid 91 . As a result, the blended system can be
processed by electrospinning more effectively than pure chitosan 86 . PVP was chosen because of its low cost,
biocompatibility, and excellent hydrophilicity. This latter property makes their
inclusion in PVP/CS fiber adsorbents more effective in increasing the adsorbent’s
hydrophilicity and, thus, wettability in aqueous conditions 92 . Compared to many inorganic adsorbents,
polymer-based materials benefit from more excellent chemical stability,
particularly in acidic environments 93 .
They
also exhibit improved selectivity after adding chelating groups to their
surfaces, which have a significant propensity to form complexes with metal ions
94 .
Natural biopolymers’
biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and capacity to adsorb
bioactive compounds make them appropriate for medicinal applications 95 . However, numerous drawbacks limit the use
of natural polymers in medicine because materials exposed to the open air can
adsorb pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi, which
can cause tissue infections 96 . Cross-contamination is a significant
concern in medical settings, and using clean and sterile materials is essential
to prevent the spread of diseases. For example, during manufacturing, these
biopolymers are exposed to the outside environment; therefore, contamination
with microbes and heavy metals is possible 99 . This fact also highlights the need and
importance for materials used in biomedical applications to withstand
sterilization temperatures without affecting their physical, chemical, and
biological properties 100 .
Depending on the production
method and the final applications, producing materials from biopolymers may be
subject to certain drawbacks 101 . For example, the main disadvantages of
biopolymers in tissue engineering are their lower mechanical, chemical, and
structural properties and lower stability against biodegradation 102 . On the other hand, the hydrophilic nature of
proteins and polysaccharides (CS and PVP, for example) prevents their use in
packaging films, as it causes them to absorb moisture. To mitigate this
particular problem, hydrophobic substances such as lipids can be used to reduce
hygroscopicity 103 .
Chitosan-Polyvinylpyrrolidone
(CS-PVP) Nanocomposite for Enhanced Wound Healing
Chitosan is widely recognized for its antimicrobial properties,
hemostatic ability, and ability to promote tissue regeneration.
Polyvinylpyrrolidone enhances hydrophilicity and drug encapsulation, making the
combination effective for wound healing.
Hydrogel-based Nanocomposites have been used in chronic wounds (e.g.,
diabetic ulcers) to speed up tissue regeneration and prevent infection. In this
context, CS-PVP hydrogel was prepared for controlled release of wound-healing
agents such as growth factors, antimicrobial drugs, or bioactive molecules
(e.g., curcumin, aloe vera extract). The PVP will improve the stability and
drug-loading efficiency, while CS ensures bioactivity and antimicrobial effects
102 .
S-PVP Nanoparticles with Dual Drug
Delivery for Multimodal Cancer Therapy
Combining
chemotherapeutic agents with natural bioactive compounds (e.g., curcumin,
resveratrol) can enhance therapeutic outcomes in cancer by targeting multiple
pathways. Chitosan-based nanoparticles provide an excellent platform for this.
Dual Drug-Loaded CS-PVP Nanoparticles have been used to deliver a combination
of synthetic chemotherapy agents and natural polyphenols (such as curcumin or
resveratrol). These nanoparticles can provide a synergistic effect against
cancer cells, minimizing resistance development while enhancing efficacy. A
multimodal approach incorporates a photothermal or photodynamic agent in the
nanoparticle, allowing for a dual approach of chemotherapy and light-activated
therapy (e.g., near-infrared irradiation)103 .
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
As discussed in this paper,
chitosan has gained interest due to its particular chemical and biological
characteristics, making it a material with multiple applications in
biomedicine, mainly in its drug delivery system. Also, its capacity to form
gels, nanoparticles, and other controlled release systems presents a broader
spectrum in this field. Biocompatibility, biodegradability, and capacity for
chemical modification make chitosan a desirable molecule for improving the
efficacy and safety of medical treatments. The research review confirms its
adequate action in administering and releasing synthetic drugs and natural
products due to its capacity to improve bioavailability, control release, and
direct specific therapies.
Both chitosan and PVP have
properties of interest for biomedical and non-biomedical applications. Their
various individual applications have been reported in numerous investigations.
However, the existing information about combining each of these biopolymers
with other materials is not so extensive. Thus, it is interesting to expand the
exploration of the capacity of these biopolymers to interact with different
materials and therefore find properties that can be used for the benefit of
society. Chemical formulations are a fundamental variable for research and
industry. Knowledge and use of adequate amounts of compounds ensure expected
results, quality and efficiency in the materials manufacturing processes, and
reproducibility and comparability of experimental results.
The creation of CS/PVP
nanofibers by electrospinning is an example of the application of chemical
formulations; these nanofibers can be useful in uranium adsorption, drug
delivery, and other fields. The characteristics and functions of CS/PVP
nanofibers can be altered by varying the proportions and concentrations of the
polymer and the test conditions.
For
the creation of new materials and drug delivery systems, it is essential to consider
that CS and PVP present advantages and limitations. Thus, on the one hand, they
are materials that can be used for applications in industries such as
biomedicine, pharmacosmetics, agriculture, and food due to their chemical
stability, antimicrobial properties, hydrophilicity, biocompatibility,
biodegradability, zero toxicity, and ability to form complexes with metal ions.
On the other hand, by their very nature, they are susceptible to presenting
difficulties for their handling, some of these being microbiological
contamination, unpredictability in production procedures, low mechanical
properties, extreme sensitivity to humidity, and premature deterioration in
unfavorable environments. Research to improve the characteristics and
functionality of biopolymers through modification, coating, addition, and
combination processes can help solve the problems described above. Thanks to
the scientific literature, it can be confirmed that polyvinylpyrrolidone and
chitosan present an excellent window of opportunity for creating drug delivery
materials and systems, as long as their benefits and limitations are
considered. Furthermore, efforts should investigate new ways to maximize their
favorable characteristics while minimizing their disadvantages.
Chitosan-polyvinylpyrrolidone
(CS-PVP) nanoparticles have shown significant potential in clinical practice,
particularly for drug delivery, wound healing, and cancer therapy. Chitosan’s
biodegradability, antimicrobial properties, and ability to promote tissue
regeneration make it highly suitable for biomedical applications, while PVP
enhances nanoparticle stability, solubility, and drug encapsulation efficiency.
In wound healing, CS-PVP nanoparticles are explored for their ability to
deliver therapeutic agents in a controlled manner, promoting faster tissue
repair and preventing infections in chronic wounds like diabetic ulcers. In
cancer therapy, these nanoparticles are being studied for targeted drug
delivery, where they can encapsulate chemotherapeutic agents or genetic
material (e.g., siRNA) for controlled release at tumor sites, enhancing
efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity. The biocompatibility and versatility
of CS-PVP nanoparticles support their potential transition from research to
clinical settings, offering promising strategies for enhanced therapeutic outcomes
in various diseases.
Research should focus on two key aspects to advance drug
delivery: the development of more advanced and specific formulations, aiming to
optimize efficacy and reduce side effects, and the continuous improvement of
characterization techniques to better understand molecular-level interactions
between chitosan and drugs, enabling a more precise design of release systems. Polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) emerges as a flexible component for their use in various drug delivery
systems. PVP-based DDS encompasses a wide spectrum of applications. However, it
is imperative to continue research and optimization efforts to enhance the
performance and drug-loading capacity of PVP-based microstructures, such as
core-shell microparticles.
This
review has shown that due to desirable characteristics such as chemical
stability and selectivity, as well as biocompatibility and easy processing,
chitosan (CS) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) are eligible materials for
creating drug delivery systems (DDS) and materials with expected properties. However,
it is necessary to deepen the scope of research on this topic to address and
solve the problems of microbial contamination and biodegradability in the
future, which will consequently make CS and PVP suitable for use in biomedical
applications with less risk. Efforts to propose effective processing methods
and research into laboratory techniques to improve these materials’ mechanical
characteristics and stability will eventually generate better experimental
results. Finally, it is essential to mention that the study of the biomaterials
subject of this review (CS and PVP) for use in the field of biomedicine and
drug delivery is a task that requires multidisciplinary knowledge, so it is
imperative to project efforts toward collaboration with other sciences. This,
of course, will increase the opportunity to make discoveries in scientific
research and the subsequent development of these materials on a large scale.
Supplementary Materials: Not applicable.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, HR and LS; methodology, PE, DO and R. D.;
investigation, PE, DO and R. D.; writing—original draft preparation, PE;
writing—review and editing, H.R.and L.S.; supervision, HR.. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: This section
provides details regarding where data supporting reported results can be found,
including links to publicly archived datasets analyzed or generated during the
study. Please refer to the suggested Data Availability Statements in the “Bionatura
Research Data Policies” section at https://www.revistabionatura.com/policies.html.
You might exclude this statement if the study did not report any data.
Acknowledgments: The author PE is grateful for the support to the MSc research
thesis, which is part of this document, by the Master of Science in Chemistry
(specialization in medical chemistry) program at Yachay Tech. HR and LS
appreciate the support through the Yachay Tech Medicinal Chemistry Research
Group (MedChem-YT) and the related projects.
Conflicts of Interest: authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role
in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of
data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the
results.”
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Received: 4 August 2024 / Accepted: 3 September 2024 / Published: 15 September 2024
Citation: Espinel P S,
Otuna-Hernández D S, Davies R, Spencer L, Rodríguez H. Chitosan and PVP: Versatile
Biopolymers for Drug Delivery and Advanced Materials. Bionatura journal. 2024;1(3):2. doi: 10.70099/BJ/2024.01.03.2
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