Bioactive components of sambo seeds, almonds, and honey and their relationship with prostate cancer
Karla Sophia Altamirano Rojas 1, Paula Catalina Calderón Abad 1, 2*, Natalia Bailón Moscoso 2
1Carrera de Nutrición y Dietética, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador;
San Cayetano alto s/n. CP 1101608. ksaltamirano@utpl.edu.ec.
San Cayetano alto s/n. CP 1101608. ksaltamirano@utpl.edu.ec.
2Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador;
San Cayetano alto s/n. CP 1101608. ncbailon@utpl.edu.ec.
San Cayetano alto s/n. CP 1101608. ncbailon@utpl.edu.ec.
*Correspondence: pccalderon1@utpl.edu.ec
ABSTRACT
Certain foods rich in bioactive compounds could have dietotherapeutic properties, allowing their use in treating and preventing diseases, including cancer. Popularly, pumpkin seeds, almonds, and honey are used for managing prostate inflammation, which can lead to carcinogenesis. Sambo seeds (Cucurbita ficifolia) and almonds (P. dulcis) have a nutrient-rich composition that includes unsaturated fatty acids and bioactive components such as vitamins, pigments, and polyphenols, which have been linked to beneficial effects on health and cancer. Currently, more studies exist on cucurbit seeds, such as those from the species Cucurbita pepo; however, C. ficifolia is abundant in the Andean region, which is why we have focused our study on the effects of Cucurbita ficifolia. This review aims to identify the bioactive components and nutrients of the ingredients in sambo seeds, almonds, and honey that are relevant to cancer. It was recognized that linoleic acid and oleic acid present in sambo seeds could prevent and reduce prostate growth; likewise, studies have determined that almonds and sambo seeds possess apoptotic and antiproliferative activity in prostate cancer cells, suggesting that the intake of this food mixture could have more excellent beneficial effects on cancer.
Keywords: Sambo seeds, Almond, Honey, Cucurbita ficifolia, P. dulcis, Cancer, Prostate
INTRODUCTION
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men, after skin cancer. In 2022, around One and a half million cases of prostate cancer were diagnosed worldwide, making it the fourth most diagnosed cancer in the world. In the same year, approximately four hundred thousand people died from the disease1 . In Ecuador, 13,419 deaths from prostate cancer were recorded between 2004 and 2019, making it the most common cancer among Ecuadorian men 2 . Due to factors such as aging populations and shifts in population size, mortality rates in most Latin American and Caribbean countries are projected to increase by 2030. Ancestral medicine is widely used in various parts of the world as an alternative to current medicine, and plants and foods such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, oils, and whole grains are rich in bioactive compounds. These chemical substances play roles in health promotion, so they are being studied for cancer prevention 3 Traditional medicine has employed a combination of Sambo seeds, almonds, and honey as a potential preventive agent for prostate cancer. A detailed phytochemical analysis of these components is proposed to evaluate their therapeutic potential and possible mechanism of action in preventing this disease.
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men, after skin cancer. In 2022, around One and a half million cases of prostate cancer were diagnosed worldwide, making it the fourth most diagnosed cancer in the world. In the same year, approximately four hundred thousand people died from the disease
Almonds (Prunus dulcis)
The almond (Prunus dulcis) is a nut instinctive to the Mediterranean climate of the Middle East (Figure 1a). It originated in Central Asia, in countries such as Syria, Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. Later, it spread to North Africa and Southern Europe4 . Today, it is produced worldwide in warm and arid Mediterranean climate regions, with the United States being the producer of 80% of the world's almonds, followed by Spain and Australia5 . The production of this fruit is small in Ecuador, so there is no significant production data. Only small crops are registered in Santa Elena, Sucumbíos, and Orellana6 provinces. There are two types of almonds: sweet almonds and bitter almonds. The sweet almond is edible, while the bitter almond is not and can be poisonous. Morphologically, they differ because the bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond, which contains 50% oil, while the bitter almond produces hydrogen cyanide9. Traditionally, almonds have been considered an excellent nutraceutical for the central nervous system, vision, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and urinary tract. This fruit has been attributed to pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, anxiolytic, sedative, hypnotic, antimicrobial, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and anticancer. Additionally, it has been seen to act as an essential prebiotic7 .
The almond (Prunus dulcis) is a nut instinctive to the Mediterranean climate of the Middle East (Figure 1a). It originated in Central Asia, in countries such as Syria, Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. Later, it spread to North Africa and Southern Europe
Figure 1. Global distribution of species. Distribution according to POWO. Green Native, Violet Introduced. (a) P. dulcis 8 (b) C. ficifolia 9 (c) Bee Species Richness Projections of A. mellifera according to Orr et. al 2021 10
Almonds (P. dulcis) contain phytosterols that delay the cell cycle, induce apoptosis, and inhibit tumor metastasis. They are believed to reduce oxidative stress due to their anti-inflammatory, anticancer, immune-regulating, and antioxidant functions11–13 . P. dulcis contains compounds such as amygdalin14,15 , which enhances the cytotoxicity of esomeprazole (at a concentration of 10,000 μg/ml) in Hela cells (cervical cancer) and decreases the resistance of these cells to esomeprazole 15 . Amygdalin (1) is an aromatic aminoglycoside found in the seeds of fruits from the Rosaceae family. Jumaa et al. reviewed the various antitumor mechanisms of this compound in prostate cancer, noting its effects on proliferation, apoptosis, and the cell cycle during a 24-hour treatment15 . While amygdalin has been considered controversial due to its potential anticancer properties, it also poses a risk of toxicity due to hydrogen cyanide production from its enzymatic breakdown. There is insufficient clinical evidence to prove its effectiveness against cancer in humans. The conversion of amygdalin to hydrocyanic acid and its subsequent accumulation in the body can lead to harmful toxic effects. Cyanide poisoning can impair the cells' ability to use oxygen, resulting in metabolic acidosis and potentially cardiopulmonary arrest. Symptoms include headache, nausea, and difficulty breathing, and these cannot be addressed with supplemental oxygen. Instead, antidotes like sodium thiosulfate, sodium nitrite, or hydroxocobalamin should be used to neutralize cyanide and facilitate its elimination through the kidneys. Nevertheless, the cyanide content in food is generally low and not considered a significant risk. The CDC states that there is insufficient evidence to support the idea that cyanide causes cancer in humans, and the EPA has concluded that cyanide is not classifiable regarding its carcinogenicity to humans. Fortunately, sweet almonds (P. dulcis), the primary type consumed, have amygdalin levels up to 1,000 times lower than bitter almonds. It is estimated that consuming 50 bitter almonds could be fatal for an adult, and 5 to 10 could be toxic to a child. The estimated lethal dose for adults ranges from 0.5 to 3.5 mg/kg of body weight 16–18 .
Amygdalin (1) and prunasin (2) (Figura 2) in almonds show antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer effects. Amygdalin can induce apoptosis in tumor cells in prostate cancer19 . Almond consumption increases the amount of bifidobacteria and lactobacillus related to cancer prevention. Additionally, phenolic compounds and betulinic acid (3) with antiproliferative effects in human osteosarcoma and breast cancer cells, respectively, have been observed20,21 .
Figure 2. Secondary metabolites from P. dulcis and C. ficifolia with anti-tumor activity.
Almonds are a source of the bioactive compound morin (4), recognized as an anticancer agent due to its ability to suppress the inflammation leading to transformation, proliferation, and initiation of carcinogenesis22 . Solairaja et al. provided strong evidence of its anticancer role and potential as a therapeutic agent in various cancers, including prostate cancer23 . Almonds also contain polyphenols that scavenge and neutralize free radicals, intervene in the regeneration of essential vitamins, and modulate Nrf2/EpRE and NF-kB signaling pathways, inducing detoxifying and antioxidant enzymes. These compounds have chemoprotective, cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects, acting as inhibitors of carcinogenesis. In prostate cancer, anacardic acid inhibited tumor cell proliferation and induced apoptosis, resveratrol induced cell death, polyphenol caused cell cycle arrest in the G0-G1 phase and induced apoptosis, and genistein dose-dependently repressed DNMT12,24 .
Almonds are a rich source of vitamin E, which helps maintain cell membranes, as well as amygdalin and prunasin, compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. These compounds can trigger apoptosis in prostate cancer cells12 . Tocopherols regulate key events in lipid metabolism, inflammation, immunity, angiogenesis, cancer, and tumor metastasis. They also benefit intestinal transit, reduce blood pressure, prevent anemia and cancer, and protect against free radicals25,26 . Due to its linoleic and oleic acid content, almond consumption may reduce the risk of colon cancer through at least one lipid-associated component of almonds27 .
Stilbenes in almonds prevent cardiovascular diseases, have antiatherosclerotic properties, and act against cancer as antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents28 . Bioactive compounds from P. dulcis can be potential selective inhibitors of CYP17A1 lyase in treatments for castration-resistant prostate cancer 22 .
Several small, short-term studies have assessed oxidation markers following consuming nuts rich in monounsaturated fats (MUFA), particularly almonds. Although the results were secondary primarily and showed some inconsistency (either a reduction or no change in markers), they never worsened oxidative status compared to other diets. This was also observed in studies with nuts rich in polyunsaturated fats (PUFA), where the antioxidants present in the nuts likely countered any adverse effects. Four recent studies analyzed oxidative stress after consuming meals enriched with nuts versus meals without nuts. Studies with almonds and walnuts showed a beneficial effect on postprandial oxidative stress. Nuts rich in MUFA seem to moderately improve oxidative status, while nuts rich in PUFA have a neutral or slightly positive effect. However, frequent nut consumption has not been shown to reduce antioxidant defenses. In a small study, diets with two doses of almonds compared to a healthy diet without nuts showed that almonds reduced levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and E-selectin, although they had no impact on IL-6. In the PREDIMED trial sub-study, diets supplemented with 30 g of nuts daily reduced inflammatory markers such as ICAM-1 and soluble IL-6, as well as the expression of pro-inflammatory ligands in monocytes, compared to a low-fat diet. In conclusion, nut consumption has little effect on CRP but reduces other inflammatory biomarkers 29 .
Fig-leaf gourd seeds (Cucurbita ficifolia)
In Central Europe, dietary supplements based on pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo), almonds (P. dulcis), and honey are marketed to treat bladder and prostate problems and are used in the Caribbean region. Hydroethanolic extracts of the seeds have shown activities related to urinary incontinence, micturition frequency, and nocturia. However, in the Andean region, within the cucurbit family, one of the most abundant species is Cucurbita ficifolia, traditionally known as sambo fruit 30 , hence our interest in investigating the possible effects of this species on prostate cancer31 , along with the two components of the mixture and their contribution to prostate-related problems.
C. ficifolia is native to Mesoamerica and the mountainous regions of Latin America (Figure 1b). It is the most widespread cucurbit in temperate and cold areas. According to Álvarez32 , the largest producer of sambo in Ecuador is the province of Bolívar, with a production of 1015 fruits per year, followed by Pichincha (852 fruits), Tungurahua (133 fruits), Imbabura (75 fruits), and finally, Cotopaxi with the lowest production of 27 fruits. Traditionally, sambo has been used to relieve gastrointestinal disorders, hemorrhoids, fever 33 , and urinary tract problems. Its compounds' antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities 34 could explain its effectiveness in cancer.
C. ficifolia is a natural source abundant in bioactive compounds like carotenoids, tocopherols, phenols, terpenoids, saponins, sterols, fatty acids, and functional carbohydrates. These components offer significant biological benefits and are increasingly being applied in biotechnological fields35 . C. ficifolia oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic and oleic acids, and contains valuable compounds such as phenolic acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, phytosterols, and squalene 36 . A study examined the anticancer effects of C. ficifolia extract on human breast cancer cells (MCF-7). The extract was tested at different concentrations, and the IC50 value was determined to be 90 μg/mL. Treated cells showed chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation changes, indicating apoptosis. The extract also increased the expression of tumor suppressor genes like p53 and apoptotic markers, leading to programmed cell death. The findings suggest that C. ficifolia extract inhibits cell division and induces apoptosis, highlighting its potential as an anticancer agent through gene modulation37 .
C. ficifolia and almonds contain unsaturated fatty acids, mainly oleic and linoleic acids. Research has shown that these fatty acids can inhibit prostate growth and decrease its size. Foods rich in oleic acid (5) (Figura 2) have antiproliferative and anticancer effects on colon carcinoma cells11 . However, a relationship has also been found between the increased incidence of prostate cancer and a diet rich in linoleic acid (6) (Figure 2). Huerta-Yépez et al. 38 reported that the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids might be more significant for prostate cancer risk than the overall amount of these fatty acids consumed. Therefore, it is suggested that the recommended dietary ratio of omega-3/omega-6 fatty acids be maintained at 1:1 to 2:1.
There are no clinical studies in humans investigating the effect of C. ficifolia on cancer. However, in a population of 1,403 men, all over the age of 50, the effectiveness of pumpkin seed oil (Cucurbita pepo) was evaluated. It was observed that phytomedicines with a concentration greater than 50% pumpkin seed extract produced a slight reduction in the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS). This reduction showed a low level of heterogeneity but was not clinically significant. Additionally, the phytomedicine showed a positive effect on reducing prostate symptoms compared to a placebo, although this improvement was modest and documented in only one study. Based on this information, it is necessary to conduct human studies on C. ficifolia 39 .
Soriano-Hernandez et al. reported that high consumption (28 grams at least once a week) of almonds, nuts, or peanuts reduces the risk of breast cancer by 2 to 3 times 40 . However, Balali et al. concluded that there is no significant association between the consumption of nuts and the risk of prostate cancer at any stage, suggesting that more studies are needed41 . Compounds such as polyphenols present in almonds and sambo seeds, which include flavonoids, stilbenes, and phenolic acids12,26,28,36,42 , have demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity that can be beneficial in cancer prevention, as mentioned by Matsushita et al. 43 . Morin, present in almonds, is a bioflavonoid that suppresses the inflammatory process leading to carcinogenesis. Solairaja et al.44 provided strong evidence of its anticancer role and potential as a therapeutic agent in various cancers, including prostate cancer44 . Carotenoids are compounds with cytotoxic and antiproliferative potential, making them possible candidates for chemoprevention and chemotherapy of breast, colorectal, lung, and prostate cancer, as noted by Saini et al.45 due to their antioxidant properties, tocopherols, especially γ-tocopherol, are compounds present in foods that can help reduce the risk of prostate cancer al. 45, 46 . Betulinic acid, extracted from almonds, has been found to have antiproliferative activity. Jiang et al. proposed that this compound has the potential for research and application in current tumor diseases. Furthermore, evaluating the effectiveness of almonds in vitro studies on cell lines such as MCF7 and HepG2 suggests the possibility of studying them on prostate cancer cell lines, expecting similar results 47 .
Pumpkin seed oil appears to have a more significant effect than the seeds in reducing prostate enlargement. The carotenoids in pumpkin seeds act as powerful antioxidants, halting the growth of cancerous cells. Omega-3 fatty acids have been studied for their potential benefits to prostate health. Pumpkin seeds may inhibit the production of DHT, which tends to worsen prostate enlargement. Additionally, they are a zinc source, inhibiting the multiplication of prostate cancer cells and preventing cellular damage. Pumpkin seeds are a natural source of B vitamins and vitamins C, D, E, and K. Minerals found in them include calcium, potassium, and phosphorus 48–54 .
In one study, treatment with 320 mg/day of pumpkin seed oil for 12 months improved the quality of life and reduced BPH symptoms in 16 subjects. Therefore, pumpkin seed oil appears to be a promising option for treating BPH symptoms, but further research in larger populations is needed 55 . In another study, the impact of pumpkin seed oil on testosterone-induced prostatic hyperplasia in rats was demonstrated. Oral intake of pumpkin seed oil at a dose of 2 mg/g body weight for 20 days significantly suppressed induced prostate enlargement. This showed that pumpkin seed oil influences enzymes involved in the processing of various endogenous steroids, helping to prevent the conversion of testosterone into DHT.
Additionally, this oil helps relax the bladder sphincter in patients with urination difficulties. Moreover, pumpkin seed extract and β-sitosterol found in seeds have shown the potential to improve urinary symptoms and reduce the growth of prostate cancer cells. It is suggested that the phytoestrogens and unsaturated fatty acids in pumpkin seed oil are responsible for these effects 56 .
Bee Honey (Apis mellifera)
Honey is a natural product made by honeybees from the nectar of different flowering plants. Honeybees consist of 11 species, genus Apis, with Apis mellifera as the most extensive species in the world. Honey is primarily produced from the species A. mellifera. Figure 1 shows the estimated global distribution of this species. It is composed of a sugar solution in combination with minerals, vitamins, enzymes, free amino acids, flavoring agents, and several volatile organic compounds 57 . The physicochemical characteristics of honey are a function of multiple variables, including the botanical origin of the nectar, the bee species, the geographical conditions (climatic and edaphic), and the post-harvest handling procedures 57 . In this review, we will focus on identifying the biological activities related to prostate cancer in sambo almond seeds and honey, these agents in the prevention and treatment of the disease.
Bee honey contains many flavonoids, known for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties42 . A positive correlation has been observed between the phenolic compound content in honey, particularly chlorogenic acid, and its antioxidant properties. In vitro studies demonstrate that phenolic acids and flavonoids affect TNF and NO activity. Furthermore, honey exhibits antimetastatic, antiproliferative, anticancer, and chemotherapeutic effects 58 .
Honey from bees has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimetastatic, antiproliferative, anticancer, and chemotherapeutic effects. This food stands out for its quantity of phenolic compounds that affect the activity of TNF and NO42,58 . Z seeds have been used to prevent and reduce prostate growth, and anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties have been discovered in this food11,59 . Compounds from almonds and pumpkin seeds can delay cell cycle progression, induce apoptosis, inhibit tumor growth and metastasis, reduce oxidative stress, and decrease the side effects associated with chemotherapy11 . Sambo seeds have been used to prevent prostate cancer 35,36,59 , and it has been observed that the oil from these seeds decreases the International Prostate Symptom Scores (IPSS) by 41.1%19 . Almonds can induce apoptosis and inhibit the proliferation of tumor cells in prostate cancer19,24 . Almonds act as a prebiotic, increasing the amount of bifidobacteria and lactobacillus, which is beneficial in cancer prevention12 .
The role of honey in cancer has demonstrated antimetastatic, antiproliferative, anticancer, and chemotherapeutic effects of its phenolic compounds. However, evidence also suggests a direct link between sugar and cancer, as high sucrose or fructose diets activate inflammation 60 . According to Castillo-Martínez et al.61 , the average concentration of fructose and glucose is 36.4 and 28.9 g/100 g for A. mellifera honey.
Some human studies have indicated that natural honey may interact with specific isoenzymes of the cytochrome P450 system, which are crucial for metabolizing many antineoplastic drugs. It has been found that regular consumption of honey might increase the activity of the CYP3A4 enzyme without affecting others like CYP2D6 or CYP2C19. This suggests that honey could alter the efficacy of drugs metabolized by CYP3A4. However, another clinical study found that daily honey consumption did not affect the activity of CYP3A4 or P-glycoprotein, which acts as an efflux pump for various drugs. Acacia honey (ACH), produced by A. mellifera feeding on acacia flowers, has shown antiproliferative properties. A study by Aliyu et al. assessed these effects on prostate cancer cells (PC-3), and the MTT assay results indicated IC50 values of 1.9% for PC-3 cancer cells and 3.7% for normal NIH/3T3 cells. Conversely, a study by Tsiapara and colleagues analyzed the viability of PC-3 cells and found significant differences in the effects of various honey extracts, highlighting that only thyme honey significantly reduced cell viability. Based on current evidence, natural honey and its bioactive components may have anticancer effects through various mechanisms. However, these mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Some studies suggest that honey's anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties might help prevent cancer initiation, promotion, and progression. Future research could clarifyoney's anticancer role, allowing for more specific and safe use in treating cancer patients 62 .
Excessive sugar consumption is a recognized risk factor for increased body fat, obesity, and cardiometabolic disorders, which in turn elevate the risk of developing various types of cancer. Obesity contributes to the disruption of several hormonal pathways, leading to increased levels of insulin, estradiol, and inflammatory cytokines while decreasing levels of adiponectin, testosterone, and sex hormone-binding globulin 63–66 . It was found that diabetes is inversely associated with the incidence of prostate cancer 67 .
It has also been suggested that sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) are associated with other cancer risk factors, including prostate cancer, through IGF-1-mediated inflammation64,66 , such as oxidative stress and inflammation or insulin resistance. In their latest report, the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR) concluded that the available evidence was insufficient to link sugar with cancer. Few studies have explored the associations between sugars and prostate cancer. In the present human study, no significant association was found between sugar intake and prostate cancer 64 .
High sugar consumption is linked to the onset of low-grade chronic inflammation, which may increase the risk of autoimmune diseases. Glucose can affect the immune system through B cell proliferation and T cell regulation. It has also been observed that glucose supports the development of B lymphocytes and protects them from apoptosis via the mTOR pathway, while fructose does not appear to have the same effect 68 . Therefore, sugar consumption should be limited in cancer compared to healthy tissue; tumor cells consume and transport more glucose and amino acids, while mitochondrial respiration is reduced. This leads to an increase in glycolysis and lactic acid production. Depending on the type of cell and the oncogenes involved, there is also more significant activity in the pentose phosphate pathway, increased de novo nucleotide synthesis, and higher synthesis of proteins, ribosomes, and fatty acids 69 .
Prostate cancer prevention of combination of P. dulcis, C. ficifolia and Apis mellifera
The Mediterranean diet, characterized by olive oil and high consumption of fiber, fish, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and grains, with moderate to low consumption of dairy products and moderate wine intake, is a diet rich in antioxidants that can prevent prostate cancer 70 . The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3, 'Good Health and Well-being,' aims to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being. Prostate cancer is directly linked to this goal, as it represents one of the leading causes of death in older men. Working on the prevention of prostate cancer is key to reducing mortality, improving quality of life, and reducing inequalities in access to early diagnosis and treatments, particularly in countries with fragile healthcare systems 71 . A risk factor for prostate cancer is excessive energy intake, often related to high consumption of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and sugars and low intake of complex carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), fruits, and vegetables.
Additionally, certain food products (such as processed and smoked meats) may be sources of carcinogenic compounds (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, N-nitroso compounds, and heterocyclic aromatic amines), which can initiate and promote prostate carcinogenesis. A diet rich in antioxidants and other nutrients, such as oleic acid, has anticancer properties 72 . In addition to these findings, this review underscores the promising potential of natural compounds found in Zambo seeds (Cucurbita ficifolia), almonds (Prunus dulcis), and honey as complementary treatments in the context of cancer, particularly prostate cancer. The bioactive components, such as linoleic and oleic acids, vitamins, pigments, and polyphenols, demonstrate significant antiproliferative and apoptotic activities against prostate cancer cells, suggesting a synergistic effect when consumed together. These foods can be part of the Mediterranean diet adapted to local customs.
Table 1 presents the nutritional composition of almonds and sambo seeds. The nutrient amounts detailed below are per 100 g of food. Nutritional values from the Food Composition Tables of Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and INCAP were compared. Fats are the predominant nutrient in sambo seeds and almonds; they also contain many minerals, almost doubling the amount in almonds except for calcium. Combining honey with almonds and sambo seeds is beneficial because the consumption of honey in adequate quantities, due to its flavonoid content, combined with foods rich in saturated fatty acids, allows for synergy between anti-inflammatory components.
1 Note. a (INCAP & OPS, 2012) 73 . b (MINSA, 2017) 74 . c (Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar, 2018) 75 . d (Herrera et al., 2021) 76 .
Table 1. Nutritional Composition of Almond (P. dulcis) and Sambo Seeds (C. ficifolia)
Table 1. Nutritional Composition of Almond (P. dulcis) and Sambo Seeds (C. ficifolia)
Honey, being a food rich in sugar, should be consumed in moderation. The WHO recommends reducing the intake of free sugars, whether added or from natural sources such as fruit juices, honey, and syrups, to 5% of total daily caloric intake 77 . However, due to its bioactive compounds related to cancer, for a 2000 kcal daily diet, it is suggested that honey consumption be limited to 25 grams of sugar or about two tablespoons. No more than two tablespoons per day. Including nuts and seeds in the diet is beneficial because essential fatty acids are also provided apart from the bioactive compounds in these three foods.
Unsaturated fatty acids, abundant in fish and vegetable oils, reduce the risk of prostate cancer. Diet influences the gut microbiome, and dysbiosis can lead to prostate cancer. The gut-prostate axis is essential for prostate cancer prevention. Promoting prebiotics and/or probiotics can foster beneficial gut bacteria that may reduce the risk of developing prostate cancer 78,79, 80 . Almonds and Sambo seeds, due to their rich nutritional composition and bioactive components, are crucial in preventing cancer. These foods are rich in unsaturated fatty acids and fiber, contributing to intestinal health. The high fiber content in these seeds supports a healthy gut microbiome, promoting beneficial bacteria that can play a role in reducing inflammation and potentially lowering cancer risk. Consumption of almonds and almond skins can enhance the profile of the intestinal microbiota and alter intestinal bacteria's activities, promoting health-beneficial factors and suppressing harmful ones 80 . This integrative approach aligns with the growing trend towards personalized nutrition and medicine, where diet and lifestyle play pivotal roles in disease management and prevention.
Figure 3 shows the primary mechanisms by which the combination of the three components inhibits cancer development, according to the hallmarks of a tumor cell. The three components primarily act by inhibiting inflammatory processes and inducing apoptosis in tumor cells, decreasing their ability to survive and proliferate.
Figure 3. The mixture of almonds, sambo, and honey on tumor cells modulates the main hallmarks of tumor cells..
The findings of this review emphasize the promising potential of natural compounds found in sambo seeds (C. ficifolia), almonds (P. dulcis), and honey as complementary agents in cancer management, particularly prostate cancer. The bioactive components, such as linoleic and oleic acids, vitamins, pigments, and polyphenols, exhibit notable antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on prostate cancer cells, suggesting a synergistic impact when consumed in combination. Among the analyzed articles, bioactive compounds against cancer were consistently reported in both sambo seeds and almonds, with almonds receiving more extensive mentions. These findings indicate that both sambo seeds and almonds hold potential as agents for the prevention and treatment of cancer.
However, while the bioactive compounds in honey, particularly flavonoids, show potential benefits, the effectiveness of honey in cancer and inflammation management remains controversial. This is due to the direct association between high-sucrose or fructose diets and adverse health outcomes, given honey's high content of these sugars.
Despite the positive findings, it is critical to acknowledge the limited research on C. ficifolia, particularly when compared to other cucurbit species such as Cucurbita pepo. This gap highlights the need for more extensive scientific exploration. Future research should prioritize robust clinical trials to confirm the efficacy and safety of these natural compounds in cancer therapy. Investigating the molecular mechanisms behind their anticancer effects could offer valuable insights into their therapeutic potential.
Advancing research in this area is essential to integrate natural compounds with conventional cancer therapies, potentially enhancing treatment effectiveness, reducing adverse effects, and improving patient outcomes. Such an integrative approach resonates with the growing emphasis on personalized medicine and nutrition, where dietary and lifestyle interventions play key roles in disease management and prevention. While this review establishes the groundwork for understanding the potential benefits of sambo seeds, almonds, and honey in cancer therapy, it also paves the way for future research opportunities. Expanding knowledge in this field is scientifically enriching and vital for advancing public health and innovative cancer treatment strategies.
CONCLUSIONES
The reviewed articles highlight the presence of bioactive compounds with anticancer properties in both sambo seeds and almonds, with almonds receiving more frequent mentions. These beneficial effects suggest that both foods could serve as preventive and therapeutic agents against cancer. However, while flavonoids in honey show potential benefits, their overall effectiveness in cancer and inflammation remains debatable due to the direct link between high-sucrose or fructose diets and the high sugar content in honey. This underscores the need for further research to clarify these effects and establish guidelines for their use in cancer therapy.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.B.M. and P.C.C.A.; methodology, P.C.C.A.; validation, P.C.C.A. and , N.B.M.; formal analysis, K.S.A.R and N.B.M.; investigation, K.S.A.R. data curation, P.C.C.A.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S.A.R.; writing—review and editing, N.B.M. and P.C.C.A.; supervision, N.B.M.; funding acquisition, N.B.M. and P.C.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received UTPL funding PROY_INV_CS_2022_3574.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We thank the Private Technical University of Loja.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
(1) American Society of Clinical Oncology. Cáncer de próstata: Estadísticas. https://www.cancer.net/es/tipos-de-c%C3%A1ncer/c%C3%A1ncer-de-pr%C3%B3stata/estad%C3%ADsticas.
(2) Simbaña-Rivera, K.; Torres-Roman, J. S.; Challapa-Mamani, M. R.; Guerrero, J.; De la Cruz-Ku, G.; Ybaseta-Medina, J.; Martinez-Herrera, J. F. Regional Disparities of Prostate Cancer Mortality in Ecuador: An Examination of Trends and Correlates from 2004 to 2019. BMC Public Health 2023, 23 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15941-z.
(3) Organización Mundial de la Salud. Cancer Today: Cancer data visualization - Bars.
(4) Javaid, T.; Mahmood, S.; Saeed, W.; Qamrosh Alam, M. A Critical Review on Varieties and Benefits of Almond (Prunus Dulcis). Acta Scientifci Nutritional Health 2019, 3 (11), 70–72. https://doi.org/10.31080/ASNH.2019.03.0489.
(5) Barreca, D.; Nabavi, S. M.; Sureda, A.; Rasekhian, M.; Raciti, R.; Silva, A. S.; Annunziata, G.; Arnone, A.; Tenore, G. C.; Süntar, İ.; Mandalari, G. Almonds (Prunus Dulcis Mill. D. A. Webb): A Source of Nutrients and Health-Promoting Compounds. Nutrients 2020, 12 (3), 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030672.
(6) Mendoza-Arévalo, I. E. Valoración nutricional y beneficios del sistema cold press (prensado en frío), sobre las propiedades organolépticas de la leche de almendra (prunus dulcis), 2021. https://cia.uagraria.edu.ec/Archivos/Ing.%20Ignacio%20Mendoza%20-%20PDF%20(1).pdf.
(7) Karimi, Z.; Firouzi, M.; Dadmehr, M.; Javad-Mousavi, S. A.; Bagheriani, N.; Sadeghpour, O. Almond as a Nutraceutical and Therapeutic Agent in Persian Medicine and Modern Phytotherapy: A Narrative Review. Phytotherapy Research 2021, 35 (6), 2997–3012. https://doi.org/10.1002/PTR.7006.
(8) Royal Botanic Gardens. Plants of the World Online: Prunus dulcis.
(9) Royal Botanic Gardens. Plants of the World Online: Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché.
(10) Orr, M. C.; Hughes, A. C.; Chesters, D.; Pickering, J.; Zhu, C. D.; Ascher, J. S. Global Patterns and Drivers of Bee Distribution. Current Biology 2021, 31 (3), 451-458.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.053.
(11) Keskin-Çavdar, H. Active Compounds, Health Effects, and Extraction of Unconventional Plant Seed Oils. Plant and Human Health: Volume 2: Phytochemistry and Molecular Aspects 2019, 2, 245–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03344-6_10/COVER.
(12) Rusu, M. E.; Gheldiu, A.-M.; Mocan, A.; Vlase, L.; Popa, D.-S. Anti-Aging Potential of Tree Nuts with a Focus on the Phytochemical Composition, Molecular Mechanisms and Thermal Stability of Major Bioactive Compounds. Food Funct 2018, 9 (5), 2554–2575. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7fo01967j.
(13) Xue, L.; Yang, R.; Wang, X.; Ma, F.; Yu, L.; Zhang, L.; Li, P. Comparative Advantages of Chemical Compositions of Specific Edible Vegetable Oils. Oil Crop Science 2023, 8 (1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocsci.2023.02.005.
(14) Adam, A. M. A. An in Vitro Study of Amygdalin Alone and Complexed with Se (IV), Au (III), Ru (III), and V (III) Ions: Structure, Morphology, and Pharmacology. J Mol Struct 2019, 1195, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2019.05.097.
(15) Jumaa, A. H.; Al Uboody, W. S. H.; Hady, A. M. Esomeprazole and Amygdalin Combination Cytotoxic Effect on Human Cervical Cancer Cell Line (Hela Cancer Cell Line). Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 2018, 10 (9), 2236–2241.
(16) Doman, G.; Aoun, J.; Truscinski, J.; Truscinski, M.; Aouthmany, S. Cyanide Poisoning Empty Line Calibri Size 12 Empty Line Calibri Size 12. 2022. https://doi.org/10.21980/J80W76.
(17) Agencia para Sustancias Tóxicas y el Registro de Enfermedades. Resumen de Salud Pública_ Cianuro (Cyanide) _ PHS _ ATSDR.
(18) Jaszczak-Wilke, E.; Polkowska, Ż.; Koprowski, M.; Owsianik, K.; Mitchell, A. E.; Bałczewski, P. Amygdalin: Toxicity, Anticancer Activity and Analytical Procedures for Its Determination in Plant Seeds. Molecules 2021, 26 (8), 2253. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26082253.
(19) Masoodi, K. Z.; Amin, I.; Mansoor, S.; Ahmed, N.; Altay, V.; Ozturk, M. Botanicals from the Himalayas with Anticancer Potential: An Emphasis on the Kashmir Himalayas. Biodiversity and Biomedicine: Our Future 2020, 189–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819541-3.00011-6.
(20) Khani, A.; Meshkini, A. Antiproliferative Activity and Mitochondria-Dependent Apoptosis Induced by Almond and Walnut by-Product in Bone Tumor Cells. Waste Biomass Valorization 2021, 12, 1405–1416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-020-01072-8.
(21) Namiranian, P.; Mardi, R.; Fadaei, F.; Sadati Lamardi, S. N.; Tabarrai, M. Nutritional Recommendations for Breast Cancer Treatment: A Review of Persian and Conventional Medicine Resources. Asian Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines 2021, 4 (1–2), 30–45. https://doi.org/10.22040/atcam.2021.270044.1017.
(22) Omoboyowa, D. A.; Balogun, T. A.; Saibu, O. A.; Chukwudozie, O. S.; Alausa, A.; Olubode, S. O.; Aborode, A. T.; Batiha, G. E.; Bodun, D. S.; Musa, S. O. Structure-Based Discovery of Selective CYP17A1 Inhibitors for Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Treatment. Biol Methods Protoc 2022, 7 (1), bpab026. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomethods/bpab026.
(23) Morsy, N. Anticancer Agents from Plants. Main Group Chemistry 2019, 18 (3), 169–191. https://doi.org/10.3233/MGC-180689.
(24) Rusu, M. E.; Simedrea, R.; Gheldiu, A.-M.; Mocan, A.; Vlase, L.; Popa, D.-S.; Ferreira, I. C. F. R. Benefits of Tree Nut Consumption on Aging and Age-Related Diseases: Mechanisms of Actions. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019, 88, 104–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.03.006.
(25) Silva, A.; Silva, M.; Ribeiro, B. Health Issues and Technological Aspects of Plant-Based Alternative Milk. Food Research International 2020, 131, 108972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108972.
(26) Stevens-Barrón, J. C.; de la Rosa, L. A.; Wall-Medrano, A.; Álvarez-Parrilla, E.; Rodríguez-Ramirez, R.; Robles-Zepeda, R. E.; Astiazaran-García, H. Chemical Composition and in Vitro Bioaccessibility of Antioxidant Phytochemicals from Selected Edible Nuts. Nutrients 2019, 11 (10), 2303. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11102303 Free PMC article.
(27) Stephen, J.; Manoharan, D.; Radhakrishnan, M. Immune Boosting Functional Components of Natural Foods and Its Health Benefits. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition 2023, 5 (61). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43014-023-00178-5.
(28) Elnour, A. A. M.; Mirghani, E.; Musa, K. H.; Kabbashi, N. A.; Alam, M. Z. Challenges of Extraction Techniques of Natural Antioxidants and Their Potential Application Opportunities as Anticancer Agents. Health Science Journal 2018, 12 (5), 596. https://doi.org/10.21767/1791-809X.1000596.
(29) Ros, E. Health Benefits of Nut Consumption. Nutrients. MDPI AG 2010, pp 652–682. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu2070652.
(30) Barrera-Redondo, J.; Hernández-Rosales, H. S.; Cañedo-Torres, V.; Aréstegui-Alegría, K.; Torres-Guevara, J.; Parra, F.; Torres-García, I.; Casas, A. Variedades Locales y Criterios de Selección de Especies Domesticadas Del Género Cucurbita (Cucurbitaceae) En Los Andes Centrales Del Perú: Tomayquichua, Huánuco. Botanical Sciences 2018, 98 (1), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.17129/botsci.2239.
(31) Medjakovic, S.; Hobiger, S.; Ardjomand-Woelkart, K.; Bucar, F.; Jungbauer, A. Pumpkin Seed Extract: Cell Growth Inhibition of Hyperplastic and Cancer Cells, Independent of Steroid Hormone Receptors. Fitoterapia 2016, 110, 150–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2016.03.010.
(32) Alvarez, D. Análisis del Sambo (C.ficifolia) y creación de propuestas gastronómicas de autor, Quito, 2019.
(33) Moreno-Quiroga, G.; Alba-Jiménez, J. E.; Aquino-Bolaños, E. N.; Chávez-Servia, J. L. Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity in Cucurbita Ficifolia Fruits, an Underrated Fruit. Front Nutr 2022, 9, 1029826. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.1029826.
(34) Labán-Quispe, V. Aprovechamiento de las semillas del Género Curcubita para la elaboración de alimentos funcionales., 2022. files/1747/UNFS_5f8ae0d95673d170f190a4d11b06186a.html.
(35) Salehi, B.; Quispe, C.; Sharifi-Rad, J.; Giri, L.; Suyal, R.; Jugran, A. K.; Zucca, P.; Rescigno, A.; Peddio, S.; Bobiş, O.; Moise, A. R.; Leyva-Gómez, G.; Del Prado-Audelo, M. L.; Cortes, H.; Iriti, M.; Martorell, M.; Cruz-Martins, N.; Kumar, M.; Zam, W. Antioxidant Potential of Family Cucurbitaceae with Special Emphasis on Cucurbita Genus: A Key to Alleviate Oxidative Stress-Mediated Disorders. Phytother Res 2021, 35 (7), 3533–3557. https://doi.org/10.1002/PTR.7045.
(36) Mallqui, L. A.; Canchumanya, M. L.; Rosales-Papa, H. A.; Rodriguez-Paucar, G. N. Características Fisicoquímicas y Composición de Ácidos Grasos de Aceites de Calabaza, Zapallo Ysoya, Duranteeltratamiento Térmico. Biotecnología en el Sector Agropecuario y Agroindustrial 2023, 21 (2), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.18684/rbsaa.v21.n2.2023.2087.
(37) Alshammari, G. M.; Balakrishnan, A.; Alshatwi, A. A.; Al-Khalifa, A. Cucurbita Ficifolia Fruit Extract Induces Tp53/Caspase-Mediated Apoptosis in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells. Biomed Res Int 2020, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3712536.
(38) Huerta-Yépez, S.; Tirado-Rodriguez, A. B.; Hankinson, O. Role of diets rich in omega-3 and omega-6 in the development of cancer. Bol Med Hosp Infant Mex 2016, 73 (6), 446–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmhimx.2016.11.001.
(39) Alejandro, J.; Cabreja, Á.; García Méndez, F. M.; De La, E.; Rodríguez Venegas, C.; Peña Velázquez, A. Efectividad de Cucurbita Pepo En El Tratamiento de La Hiperplasia Prostática. Revisión Sistemática y Meta-Análisis Effectiveness of Cucurbita Pepo in the Prostatic Hyperplasia Treatment. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. http://medisur.sld.cu/index.php/medisur/article/view/4799.
(40) Soriano-Hernandez, A. D.; Madrigal-Perez, D. G.; Galvan-Salazar, H. R.; Arreola-Cruz, A.; Briseño-Gomez, L.; Guzmán-Esquivel, J.; Dobrovinskaya, O.; Lara-Esqueda, A.; Rodríguez-Sanchez, I. P.; Baltazar-Rodriguez, L. M.; Espinoza-Gomez, F.; Martinez-Fierro, M. L.; de-Leon-Zaragoza, L.; Olmedo-Buenrostro, B. A.; Delgado-Enciso, I. The Protective Effect of Peanut, Walnut, and Almond Consumption on the Development of Breast Cancer. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2015, 80 (2), 89–92. https://doi.org/10.1159/000369997.
(41) Balali, A.; Askari, G.; Anjom-Shoae, J.; Sadeghi, O. Association between Nut Consumption and Prostate Cancer Risk in Adults: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2023, 33 (7), 1293–1307. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NUMECD.2023.04.004.
(42) Arias-Lamos, D.; Montaño-Díaz, L. N.; Velasco-Sánchez, M. A.; Martínez-Girón, J. Alimentos Funcionales: Avances de Aplicación En Agroindustria. Tecnura 2018, 22 (57), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.14483/22487638.12178.
(43) Matsushita, M.; Fujita, K.; Nonomura, N. Influence of Diet and Nutrition on Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020, 21 (4), 1447. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21041447.
(44) Solairaja, S.; Andrabi, M. Q.; Dunna, N. R.; Venkatabalasubramanian, S. Overview of Morin and Its Complementary Role as an Adjuvant for Anticancer Agents. Nutr Cancer 2021, 73 (6), 927–942. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2020.1778747.
(45) Saini, R. K.; Keum, Y. S.; Daglia, M.; Rengasamy, K. R. Dietary Carotenoids in Cancer Chemoprevention and Chemotherapy: A Review of Emerging Evidence. Pharmacol Res 2020, 157. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PHRS.2020.104830.
(46) Saldeen, K.; Saldeen, T. Importance of Tocopherols beyond α-Tocopherol: Evidence from Animal and Human Studies. Nutrition Research 2005, 25 (10), 877–889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2005.09.019.
(47) Jiang, W.; Li, X.; Dong, S.; Zhou, W. Betulinic Acid in the Treatment of Tumour Diseases: Application and Research Progress. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 2021, 142, 111990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111990.
(48) Gossell-Williams, M.; Lyttle, K.; Clarke, T.; Gardner, M.; Simon, O.; Gossell-Williams, M. PUMPKIN SEED OIL SUPPLEMENTATION REDUCES TOTAL CHOLESTEROL AND BLOOD PRESSURE 873 Supplementation with Pumpkin Seed Oil Improves Plasma Lipid Profile and Cardiovascular Outcomes of Female Non-Ovariectomized and Ovariectomized Sprague-Dawley Rats. Phytother. Res 2008, 22, 873–877. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.
(49) Bisset, N. Herbal and Phytopharmaceuticals: A Handbook for Practice on a Scientific Basis. Medpharm Scientific Publishers; Wichtl, M., Ed.; CRC Press: Stuttgart,Germany, 1994.
(50) Nathan, M.; Scholten, R. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Ann Intern Med 1999, 130, 459.
(51) Ensminger, A. H. Food for Health: A Nutrition Encyclopedia; PegusPress: Michigan, 1986.
(52) Fortin, F. The Visual Food Encyclopedia; Macmillan, 1996.
(53) Hyun, T. H.; Barrett-Connor, E.; Milne, D. B. Zinc Intakes and Plasma Concentrations in Men with Osteoporosis: The Rancho Bernardo Study 1-3; 2004; Vol. 80.
(54) Weiss, R. F. Herbal Medicine; Ab Arcanum and Beaconsfield: Beaconsfield Publishers Ltd: Gothenberg, Sweden, 1998.
(55) Ramak, P.; Mahboubi, M. The Beneficial Effects of Pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo L.) Seed Oil for Health Condition of Men. Food Reviews International. Taylor and Francis Inc. February 17, 2019, pp 166–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2018.1482496.
(56) Dowidar, M.; Ahmed, A.; Mohamed, H. The Critical Nutraceutical Role of Pumpkin Seeds in Human and Animal Health: An Updated Review. Zagazig Vet J 2020, 48 (2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.21608/zvjz.2020.22530.1097.
(57) Tesfaye, O.; Muleta, D.; Desalegn, A. A Comparative Study on the Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Honeys From Apis Mellifera L. and Meliponula Beccarii L. Collected From Western Oromia, Ethiopia. Int J Food Sci 2024, 2024 (1). https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/4448277.
(58) Durazzo, A.; Lucarini, M.; Plutino, M.; Lucini, L.; Aromolo, R.; Martinelli, E.; Souto, E. B.; Santini, A.; Pignatti, G. Bee Products: A Representation of Biodiversity, Sustainability, and Health. Life 2021, 11 (9), 970. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11090970.
(59) Rodríguez, R.; Valdés, M.; Ortiz, S. Características agronómicas y calidad nutricional de los frutos y semillas de zapallo Cucurbita sp. Revista Colombiana de Ciencia Animal - RECIA 2018, 10 (1), 86–97. https://doi.org/10.24188/recia.v10.n1.2018.636.
(60) Epner, M.; Yang, P.; Wagner, R. W.; Cohen, L. Understanding the Link between Sugar and Cancer: An Examination of the Preclinical and Clinical Evidence. Cancers (Basel) 2022, 14 (24), 6042. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14246042.
(61) Castillo-Martínez, T.; García-Osorio, C.; García-Muñiz, J. G.; Aguilar-Ávila, J.; Ramírez-Valverde, R. Sugars and °Brix in Honey from Apis Mellifera, Melipona Beecheii, and Commercial Honey from a Local Market in Mexico. Veterinaria México OA 2022, 9. https://doi.org/10.22201/fmvz.24486760e.2022.950.
(62) Eteraf-Oskouei, T.; Najafi, M. Uses of Natural Honey in Cancer: An Updated Review. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin. Tabriz University of Medical Sciences 2022, pp 248–261. https://doi.org/10.34172/apb.2022.026.
(63) Fujita, K.; Matsushita, M.; Banno, E.; De Velasco, M. A.; Hatano, K.; Nonomura, N.; Uemura, H. Gut Microbiome and Prostate Cancer. International Journal of Urology. John Wiley and Sons Inc August 1, 2022, pp 793–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.14894.
(64) Debras, C.; Chazelas, E.; Srour, B.; Kesse-Guyot, E.; Julia, C.; Zelek, L.; Agaesse, C.; Druesne-Pecollo, N.; Galan, P.; Hercberg, S.; Latino-Martel, P.; Deschasaux, M.; Touvier, M. Total and Added Sugar Intakes, Sugar Types, and Cancer Risk: Results from the Prospective NutriNet-Santé Cohort. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2020, 112 (5), 1267–1279. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa246.
(65) Oczkowski, M.; Dziendzikowska, K.; Pasternak-Winiarska, A.; Włodarek, D.; Gromadzka-Ostrowska, J. Dietary Factors and Prostate Cancer Development, Progression, and Reduction. Nutrients. MDPI AG February 1, 2021, pp 1–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020496.
(66) Kustrimovic, N.; Bombelli, R.; Baci, D.; Mortara, L. Microbiome and Prostate Cancer: A Novel Target for Prevention and Treatment. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. MDPI January 1, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24021511.
(67) Gandaglia, G.; Leni, R.; Bray, F.; Fleshner, N.; Freedland, S. J.; Kibel, A.; Stattin, P.; Van Poppel, H.; La Vecchia, C. Epidemiology and Prevention of Prostate Cancer. Eur Urol Oncol 2021, 4 (6), 877–892.
(68) Ma, X.; Nan, F.; Liang, H.; Shu, P.; Fan, X.; Song, X.; Hou, Y.; Zhang, D. Excessive Intake of Sugar: An Accomplice of Inflammation. Frontiers in Immunology. Frontiers Media S.A. August 31, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.988481.
(69) Metabolismo, E.; Cáncer, D. SEBBM DIVULGACIÓN ACÉRCATE A NUESTROS CIENTÍFICOS-a-Nuestros-Cientificos_107. http://www.sebbm.es/HEMEROTECA:http://www.sebbm.es/ES/divulgacion-ciencia-para-todos_10/acercate.
(70) Cicero, A. F. G.; Allkanjari, O.; Vitalone, A.; Busetto, G. M.; Cai, T.; Larganà, G.; Russo, G. I.; Magri, V.; Perletti, G.; della Cuna, F. S. R.; Stamatiou, K.; Trinchieri, A. Nutraceutical Treatment and Prevention of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer. Archivio Italiano di Urologia e Andrologia. Edizioni Scripta Manent s.n.c. 2019, pp 139–152. https://doi.org/10.4081/aiua.2019.3.139.
(71) World Health Organization. The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2023_Spanish. 2023.
(72) Oczkowski, M.; Dziendzikowska, K.; Pasternak-Winiarska, A.; Włodarek, D.; Gromadzka-Ostrowska, J. Dietary Factors and Prostate Cancer Development, Progression, and Reduction. Nutrients. MDPI AG February 1, 2021, pp 1–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020496.
(73) Instituto de Nutrición de Centro América y Panamá. Tabla de Composición de Alimentos de Centroamérica. 2012. http://www.incap.int.
(74) Ministerio de salud del Perú. Tablas Peruanas de Composición de Alimentos. 2017.
(75) Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar. Tabla de Composición de Alimentos Colombianos 2018.
(76) Universidad San Francisco de Quito. Tabla de Composición Química de Los Alimentos: Basada En Nutrientes de Interés Para La Población Ecuatoriana. 2021.
(77) World Health Organization. Sugars Intake for Adults and Children; 2015.
(78) Fujita, K.; Matsushita, M.; Banno, E.; De Velasco, M. A.; Hatano, K.; Nonomura, N.; Uemura, H. Gut Microbiome and Prostate Cancer. International Journal of Urology. John Wiley and Sons Inc August 1, 2022, pp 793–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.14894.
(79) Kustrimovic, N.; Bombelli, R.; Baci, D.; Mortara, L. Microbiome and Prostate Cancer: A Novel Target for Prevention and Treatment. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. MDPI January 1, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24021511.
(80) Liu, Z.; Lin, X.; Huang, G.; Zhang, W.; Rao, P.; Ni, L. Prebiotic Effects of Almonds and Almond Skins on Intestinal Microbiota in Healthy Adult Humans. Anaerobe 2014, 26, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.11.007.
Received: August 8, 2024 / Accepted: December 7, 2025 / Published: March 15, 2025
Citation: Altamirano Rojas KS, Calderón Abad PC, Bailón Moscoso N. Bioactive components of sambo seeds, almonds, and honey and their relationship with prostate cancer.Bionatura Journal. 2025;2 (1):6. doi: 10.70099/BJ/2025.02.01.6
Additional information Correspondence should be addressed to pccalderon1@utpl.edu.ec
Peer review information. Bionatura thanks anonymous reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work using https://reviewerlocator.webofscience.com/
ISSN.3020-7886
All articles published by Bionatura Journal are made freely and permanently accessible online immediately upon publication, without subscription charges or registration barriers.
Publisher's Note: Bionatura Journal stays neutral concerning jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. They were submitted for possible open-access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).